How Space is Explored

How Space is Explored

Space was explored as early as the fourth century BCE, through ancient astronomy. It was only in the twentieth-century that man sent out probes and himself to explore space. Space exploration, then, can be broken into three conclusive categories: astronomy, unmanned probes, and manned probes. The sub-page branches listed below represent these three fields of space exploration. Although seemingly contrary to the divisions just drawn, man is the explorer in all of these sub-pages; it is man's dream, technology, and understanding of science that forms the basis of all forms of space exploration. The exploration of space is value based, that is, man has "reason" to send men to the moon and to study distant galaxies, just to name a couples such values. (For a more complete exploration of man's "reason," see Issues on Space Exploration: Why we explore space.) From ancient times, to well into to the twentieth-century, the only technologically feasible method to explore space was astronomy--the studying of the millions of stars and neighboring planets, which invade night sky, as they have done for billions of years. The mysterious movements of the planets and the ebbing of stars across the sky had originally found explanations in religion, but as man's understanding of the science of astronomy increased natural laws, and not dogma, took form. And, as a solid foundation was laid with ground-based astronomy, man walked resolutely into the Space Age, upon the advent of the modern rocket. Given this stepping stone of the liquid fueled rocket, man was able to enter the cosmic "ocean." Public support for the space program, during the Cold War era, allocated millions of dollars to the exploration of space, but this trend has ceased in the later part of the twentieth-century. The peak of space exploration, as a function of government and public support, apexes in the 1970's, with the Apollo program. The public has generally been more supportive of the manned exploration program, but the costs and the values at risk are malignant to the support of space exploration as a whole. Today, economic resources for space exploration are scarce and public, and thus government support is relatively low. The glorious Apollo missions are impossible to reconstruct, and instead there has been a steady trend towards unmanned space exploration. What the future of space exploration will hold is highly dependant on the rising generation, and the values they hold towards space exploration.

Man, the Traditional Explorer

Man, the Traditional Explorer
The exploration of space has always been filled with danger and peril but man and his tools have learned how to overcome and explore "the last, the
greatest, and the most dangerous frontier of all" (-National Geographic).

The story of the American manned space exploration starts with the Mercury rocket program. The rockets used were nothing more than ready-to-fly,
modified military missiles that had capsules instead of warheads. This method of early non-reusable rockets was costly and impractical, but it placed us
into the space race by putting astronaut Alan B. Shepard into space. The second leg of the manned space program was the Gemini rocket program. Its
purpose was to tackle the difficulties that a moon mission would start to supply such as docking in space and maneuvering a craft in zero gravity. The
other thing that they had to improve was the life support systems. All of the new developments on the capsule added weight and the old launch rockets
(mercury missiles) wouldn't do so they had to use a new intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). With the new launch vehicle, Titan, the Gemini program
was a success and making it possible to go to the moon.

The third stage of manned flight was the Apollo program. This program was the first and only program of the 20th century to bring men to the moon.
This time the rocket wasn't just a modified missile It was the "big daddy" of all missiles, it was the Saturn V rocket, larger than any functional rocket on the
face of the planet--standing 363 feet tall. When the time came, with Apollo 11, to take Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins to the
moon the world was ready. On July 16, 1969 the count down ended and the F-1 engines of the Saturn V rocket took to life guzzling 15 Tons of fuel each
second the first moon mission was under way. Four days later, a man was walking on the moon. Several other men went on the three moon missions
before the program was abandoned.

The fourth of the manned space programs started in April 1981 with the Space Shuttle. The Space shuttle is the answer to congress's demands for a less expensive alternative to the Saturn V rocket, to explore space with. What they got was just that the shuttle has three of the most efficient engines of there kind on its tail end and two of the largest reusable solid rocket boosters in the world. The shuttle carries 49 engines, 23 antennas, 5 computers up to 5 satellites and 2-7 people. There was only one major disaster for the space shuttle and that was the most famous of all the shuttle flights and that the Challenger mission. Seven astronauts were killed as a result of two faulty O-rings which had allowed the gasses in the main tank to catch fire, leading to a tragic explosion that shocked the world; an episode which set the manned space program back several years.
Today, next phase of the manned space program is being entered with the development of VentureStar. This replacement for the Space Shuttle will reduce the price to one-tenth of today's current levels, by the use of a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) launch vehicle. The VentureStar requires no additional booster rockets an external fuel tanks, and launches simply by accelerating off a runway. Some of its advanced features include: linear aerospike engines for all altitude efficiency (see How Rockets Work), a lifting body design to aid in launching and re-entry, advanced composite materials for lighter structure and propellant tanks, an advanced thermal protection system. The X-33 will prelude the VentureStar as prototype employing the same (but downscaled) design and features.
Man experienced his greatest glory of exploration in the twentieth century with the Apollo missions. What will be his next great endeavor into the twenty-first century? Missions to Mars are proposed but what next? The cold war competition with the former Soviet Union fueled nationalism and thwarted resources (money) into space program. What will fuel the next great stride, the mission to Mars suggests the question: "are we alone" (see Issues on Space Exploration). There is little doubt that man will begin to explore the interstellar universe in the distant future, but the rate at which we approach this is dependant on today when the fuels to manifest the "dream" to explore are smothered by an increasing conservative society.
During the 1960's there was a race to beat the Russians to the moon. In the United States Americans were fueled in this space race by nationalism and eight million pound thrust rockets as we ushered into a new ear, the Space Age. America, so engulfed in cold war tensions and competition with the former Soviet Union, allowed for such great (and expensive) steps to taken early on.
Man's conquering of the moon was a major triumph of technology and perseverance. After all, it required the largest, most expensive, and most powerful rocket ever to have left the planet earth. The Saturn V rocket, resulting from the impedus of millions of dollars and thousands of scientists, represents not only a means to propel three men to the moon, but it is the product of an age when man donned the crown of exploration.
The Saturn V rocket begins its construction in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB), at the Kennedy Space Center. This building is 526 feet ( 160 meters ) tall and was designed to hold and assemble four Saturn V rockets at a time. This building is where all the components came together to form the finished rocket. All of the sections are stacked upon the Crawler, which is the worlds largest land vehicle. Once fully assembled, the doors are opened and the Saturn V heads towards its destiny. At a slow rate of 5mph, the Saturn V rolls towards its launch pad. There, after final checks and fueling, it awaits the count down. For when the clock strikes zero, 7.5 million pounds ( 3.5 million kg) of thrust is mustered to propel the rocket from its 365 foot tall launching structure. Twelve minutes later, after the first three stages have done their work, having lifted the final stages of this great giant into a three hour temporary orbit around earth. Then, after proper alignment, the 3rd engine roars to life accelerating the final two stages from 17,500 mph to 24,400 mph. Once this is completed the third stage is shut down and the capsule filled with the three astronauts inside continues its long journey towards the moon. Two days later, due to the force of gravity, the capsule slows to 2,300 mph deaccelerating at a rate of 460 miles per hour squared. Next, the ship enters the moons field of gravity and starts to accelerate again. The next day in the trip, the will pass behind the moon and start their burn to initiate moon orbit. This is a very scary and dangerous time because they are out of communication with earth (due to their location behind the moon). After successfully gaining moon orbit, they would launch the lunar lander. The lander is a small transport vehicle that ferried the astronauts and their equipment to the lunar surface and back to the moon orbiting return capsule (where one astronaut remained). The lander, after serving its purpose, was then discarded and left as space debris. The lander would spend several days on the surface of the moon while the crew collected samples and left experiments such as the reflectors that tell us accurately how far away the moon is and how fast it is moving away from the earth. When the lander then returns to the ship the crew will start there voyage home. After a long time in space the crew is quite tired and stressed due to the extreme isolation. This next step is the most dangerous due to the condition of the astronauts and the complexity of the maneuver. The ship will enter earth's the atmosphere at almost 25,000 mph (mach 35). The ship has its center of gravity offset so that they can adjust their angle of attack (entry). The ship skips in and out of the atmosphere twice before releasing its parachutes at 10,000 ft and splashing down into the ocean at a gentle 35 mph.
Some of the most famous astronauts in this program are Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins just to name some of the 10 or so men who have walked upon the surface of the moon.

About Rockets

The evolution of the rocket has made it an indispensable tool in the exploration of space. For centuries, rockets have provided ceremonial and warfare uses for the ancient Chinese, the first to create rockets. The history of the rocket is extensive and the three sub-pages below explore different aspects of rockets and rocketry. The field of rocket science is expansive, but one does not need to be a rocket scientist to garner the understanding of rockets, provided on these sub-pages. Exploration of space is performed in other ways (observatories, and radio satellite dishes), but for today, and perhaps many more years, rockets will remain king of "this new ocean" of space. Rockets, by breaking new frontiers in this cosmic ocean, have allowed the "dream," that carried such great explorers as Columbus and Magellan, to materialize in a world absent of uncharted seas. Science is exploration of the "truth," and by coupling it with rockets' exploration of space, we receive a product that not only charts the foreign sea of space, but improves our sense of placement in the universe. Man was "the measure of all things," but he has stepped out of this cave of complacency, searching for an understanding. In 1969, with modern rockets, man made another step, as Neil Armstrong placed his foot on the moon--breaking the limits of earth--transcending man to a greater state of being, where he is no longer one with just the earth, but one with cosmos. The rocket, as evolved through science, has given us an invaluable understanding of ourselves, as well as the "ocean" that envelopes us. Where rockets will take us tomorrow is unfathomable, as their development in dependant on the random discoveries of science. And to this one might step so far as to say that "rockets are the measure of all things"--but we will have to wait for time to unfold to ascertain this.

Mercury

Mercury

Mercury remains the least explored of the inner planets. As of January 2008, the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER made a fly-by of Mercury on 14 January 2008, to further investigate the observations made by Mariner 10 in 1975 (Munsell, 2006b). A third mission to Mercury, scheduled to arrive in 2020, BepiColombo is to include two probes. BepiColombo is a joint mission between Japan and the European Space Agency. MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10's flybys.

Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Due to the relatively high delta-v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable.

Targets of exploration

The Sun

While the Sun will probably not be physically explored in the close future, one of the reasons for going into space includes knowing more about the Sun. Once above the atmosphere in particular and the Earth's magnetic field, this gives access to the Solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that cannot reach the surface of the Earth. The Sun generates most space weather, which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes.

Space explorationv

Space exploration is the use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space.^[1] Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large liquid-fueled rocket engines during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. Various criticisms of space exploration are sometimes made, generally on cost or safety grounds.

Outer Space:Intergalactic

Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Generally free of dust and debris, intergalactic space is very close to a total vacuum. Certainly, the space between galaxy clusters, called the voids, is nearly empty. Some theories put the average density of the universe as the equivalent of one hydrogen atom per cubic meter.^[15][16] The density of the universe, however, is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies (including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and black holes) to conditions in vast voids that have much lower density than the universe's average.

Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a rarefied plasma^[17][18] that is thought to possess a cosmic filamentary structure^[19] and that is slightly denser than the average density in the universe. This material is called the intergalactic medium (IGM) and is mostly ionized hydrogen, i.e. a plasma consisting of equal numbers of electrons and protons. The IGM is thought to exist at a density of 10 to 100 times the average density of the universe (10 to 100 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter). It reaches densities as high as 1000 times the average density of the universe in rich clusters of galaxies.

The reason the IGM is thought to be mostly ionized gas is that its temperature is thought to be quite high by terrestrial standards (though some parts of it are only "warm" by astrophysical standards). As gas falls into the Intergalactic Medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 10⁵ K to 10⁷ K, which is high enough for the bound electrons to escape from the hydrogen nuclei upon collisions. At these temperatures, it is called the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium (WHIM). Computer simulations indicate that on the order of half the atomic matter in the universe might exist in this warm-hot, rarefied state. When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 10⁸ K and above.

Outer Space:Interplanetary

Outer space within the solar system is called interplanetary space, which passes over into interstellar space at the heliopause. The vacuum of outer space is not really empty; it is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles. There is also gas, plasma and dust, small meteors, and several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy. Interplanetary space is defined by the solar wind, a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun that creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the heliosphere) for billions of miles into space. The discovery since 1995 of extrasolar planets means that other stars must possess their own interplanetary media.

Outer Space:Regions

Regions

Space being not a perfect vacuum, its different regions are defined by the various atmospheres and "winds" that dominate within them, and extend to the point at which those winds give way to those beyond. Geospace extends from Earth's atmosphere to the outer reaches of Earth's magnetic field, whereupon it gives way to the solar wind of interplanetary space. Interplanetary space extends to the heliopause, whereupon the solar wind gives way to the winds of the interstellar medium. Interstellar space then continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void.

Regions

Regions

Space being not a perfect vacuum, its different regions are defined by the various atmospheres and "winds" that dominate within them, and extend to the point at which those winds give way to those beyond. Geospace extends from Earth's atmosphere to the outer reaches of Earth's magnetic field, whereupon it gives way to the solar wind of interplanetary space. Interplanetary space extends to the heliopause, whereupon the solar wind gives way to the winds of the interstellar medium. Interstellar space then continues to the edges of the galaxy, where it fades into the intergalactic void.

Outer space:Environment

Environment

Outer space is the closest approximation of a perfect vacuum. It has effectively no friction, allowing stars, planets and moons to move freely along ideal gravitational trajectories. But no vacuum is truly perfect, not even in intergalactic space where there are still a few hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter. (For comparison, the air we breathe contains about 10¹⁹ molecules per cubic centimeter.) The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, for instance those that require ultraclean surfaces.

Stars, planets, asteroids, and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about 1 Pa at 100 kilometres (62 mi) of altitude, the Kármán line which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar wind, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre.

Outer Space:Temperature

Temperature

All of the observable universe is filled with large numbers of photons, created during the Big Bang, the so-called cosmic background radiation, and quite likely a correspondingly large number of neutrinos called the cosmic neutrino background. The current temperature of the photon radiation is about 3 K (−270.15 °C; −454.27 °F).

Outer Space

Outer space (often simply called space) comprises the relatively empty regions of the universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies. Outer space is used to distinguish it from airspace and terrestrial locations.

Contrary to popular understanding, outer space is not completely empty (i.e. a perfect vacuum), but contains a low density of particles, predominantly hydrogen plasma, as well as electromagnetic radiation, magnetic fields and neutrinos. Hypothetically, it also contains dark matter and dark energy.

The term outer space was first recorded by the English poet Lady Emmeline Stuart-Wortley in her poem "The Maiden of Moscow" in 1842, and also later attested to the writings of HG Wells in 1901. The shorter term space is actually older, first used to mean the region beyond Earth's sky in John Milton's Paradise Lost in 1667.

The Value of Space Exploration

The Value of Space Exploration

Written by Fraser Cain ShareThis

Read any debate about space exploration, and this question will invariably come up. "Why should we be spending money exploring space when there are so many problems here on Earth that we need to solve first?" It's a tricky one. I've got a simple answer; space exploration is awesome. Come on, think of space ships traveling to other worlds – that's really cool.

Okay, perhaps I've got too simplistic an argument, so I turned to the astrosphere and posed the question to other space bloggers. Here's what they had to say…

2001: A Space Odyssey

2001: A Space Odyssey

A few million years ago, in Africa’s Olduvai Gorge, our ancestors were starving, defenseless prey to predators, and on the verge of extinction. An advanced civilization from the stars (never shown) spots our potential and gives our brains a boost by means of a monolith. In 2001 a monolith is found buried on the moon. When sunlight hits it, it sends a radio message to a Jupiter monolith-relay, telling the aliens that we have arrived. A space craft is sent to Jupiter on a secret mission to check it out. One member of the crew is HAL, a sentient, self-aware computer. Unfortunately HAL has been instructed to lie, something contrary to his very nature. This drives him to desperate measures.

Apollo 13

Apollo 13

This is probably one of my favorite space mission films of all time. “Houston, we have a problem.” Those words were immortalized during the tense days of the Apollo 13 lunar mission crisis, and the suspense, fear, and excitement of those days are captured in Ron Howard’s epic recreation of the 1970 crisis. When the commander of the original mission Ken Mattingly (Gary Sinise), bows out due to possible exposure to measles, astronaut Jim Lovell (Tom Hanks) leads command module pilot Jack Swigert (Kevin Bacon) and lunar module driver Fred Haise (Bill Paxton) on what is slated as NASA’s third lunar landing mission. All goes smoothly until the craft is halfway through its mission, when an exploding oxygen tank threatens the crew’s oxygen and power supplies. As the courageous astronauts face the dilemma of either suffocating or freezing to death, Mattingly and Mission Control leader Gene Kranz (Ed Harris) struggle to find a way to bring the crew back home, all the while knowing that the spacemen face probable death once the battered ship reenters the Earth’s atmosphere. Even though the outcome, in which all three astronauts miraculously survived, is historical fact, the film derives suspense from the situation itself and from the actions of the heroic astronauts and the men on the ground.

Capricorn One

Capricorn One

Astronauts Charles Brubaker, John Walker, and Peter Willis (James Brolin, O.J. Simpson, Sam Waterston) are hailed as heroes when they become the first men to be rocketed to Mars. Actually the space travelers are as phony as their mission controller, Dr. James Kelloway (Hal Holbrook); to avert a failure that might cost the space program its funding, the Mars-bound vessel has been sent up without a crew, while the helmeted astronauts sit on a movie soundstage, pretending to be in outer space for the benefit of the TV cameras. Unfortunately the Mars ship crashes on arrival, making the astronaut trio thoroughly expendable. Investigative reporter Robert Caulfield (Elliott Gould), who’s smelled a rat all along, races against time to prevent NASA from “terminating” the hapless astronauts in order to cover up the conspiracy.

SpaceCamp

SpaceCamp

What happens when four teenagers and a 12 year old boy decide to stowaway on a space shuttle mission? craziness that is for sure. This is an eerily prescient family adventure starring Kate Capshaw as Andie, a frustrated NASA astronaut who’s never actually been into outer space. Her husband, flight controller Zach (Tom Skerritt), is sympathetic, but he can’t influence her place in the rotation. Andie is assigned to train a group of intelligent high school students at the summer science camp called Space Camp, which is run by NASA and supervised by her husband. There she meets her campers: Kevin (Tate Donovan), a blasé, horny teenager; Tish (Kelly Preston), an airhead with a photographic memory; Kathryn (Lea Thompson), an arrogant pilot; obnoxious youngster Max (Joaquin Phoenix); and scientist-in-training Rudy (Larry B. Scott). While testing the solid booster rockets aboard a real shuttle, the team is blasted into space accidentally. Without enough air, the discordant team pulls together, each discovering hidden talents. Coincidentally the space shuttle in this film is also called Atlantis.

Best Space Shuttle Mission Movies

Space Cowboys

Frank Corvin, “Hawk” Hawkins, Jerry O’Neill and Tank Sullivan were hot dog members of Project DAEDALUS, the Air Force’s test program for space travel, destined to be the first men in space their hopes were dashed in 1958 with the formation of NASA and the use of trained chimps and the Mercury program. 40 years later the gang blackmail their way into orbit when Russia’s mysterious Ikon communications satellite’s orbit begins to degrade and threatens to crash into Earth. Starring Clint Eastwood, Tommy Lee Jones, James Gardner and Donald Sutherland this movie shows that age isn’t everything.v

The Best Space Shuttles:S118-E-06984v

S118-E-06984 (13 Aug. 2007) — While anchored to the foot restraint on the Canadarm2, astronaut Dave Williams, STS-118 mission specialist representing the Canadian Space Agency, participates in the mission’s second planned session of extravehicular activity (EVA) as construction and maintenance continue on the International Space Station. During the 6-hour, 28-minute spacewalk, Williams and astronaut Rick Mastracchio (out of frame), mission specialist, removed a faulty control moment gyroscope (CMG-3) and installed a new CMG into the station’s Z1 truss. The failed CMG will remain at its temporary stowage location on the station’s exterior until it is returned to Earth on a later shuttle mission. The new gyroscope is one of four CMGs that are used to control the station’s attitude in orbit.v

The Best Space Shuttles:S118-E-07920v

S118-E-07920 (18 Aug. 2007) — Crewmembers on the Space Shuttle Endeavour captured this image around Noon CDT of Hurricane Dean in the Caribbean. At the time the shuttle and International Space Station passed overhead, the Category 4 storm was moving westerly at 17 mph nearing Jamaica carrying sustained winds of 150 mph.v

The Best Space Shuttles:S118-E-09416

S118-E-09416 (19 Aug. 2007) — Backdropped by a blue and white Earth, the International Space Station moves away from Space Shuttle Endeavour. Earlier the STS-118 and Expedition 15 crews concluded nearly nine days of cooperative work onboard the shuttle and station. Undocking of the two spacecraft occurred at 6:56 a.m. (CDT) on Aug. 19, 2007.

Invention and History of Rocketsv

Invention and History of Rockets

evolution of the rocket has made it an indispensable tool in the exploration of space. For centuries, rockets have provided ceremonial and warfare uses starting with the ancient Chinese, the first to create rockets. The rocket apparently made its debut on the pages of history as a fire arrow used by the Chin Tartars in 1232 AD for fighting off a Mongol assault on Kai-feng-fu. The lineage to the immensely larger rockets now used as space launch vehicles is unmistakable. But for centuries rockets were in the main rather small, and their use was confined principally to weaponry, the projection of lifelines in sea rescue, signaling, and fireworks displays.
Not until the 20th century did a clear understanding of the principles of rockets emerge, and only then did the technology of large rockets begin to evolve. Thus, as far as spaceflight and space science are concerned, the story of rockets up to the beginning of the 20th century was largely prologue.

Early Experiments

All through the 13th to the 18th Century there were reports of many rocket experiments. For example, Joanes de Fontana of Italy designed a surface-running rocket-powered torpedo for setting enemy ships on fire. In 1650, a Polish artillery expert, Kazimierz Siemienowicz, published a series of drawings for a staged rocket. In 1696, Robert Anderson, an Englishman, published a two-part treatise on how to make rocket molds, prepare the propellants, and perform the calculations.

Sir William Congreve

During the early introduction of rockets to Europe, they were used only as weapons. Enemy troops in India repulsed the British with rockets. Later in Britain, Sir William Congreve developed a rocket that could fire to about 9,000 feet. The British fired Congreve rockets against the United States in the War of 1812. Francis Scott Key coined the phrase the "rocket's red glare after the British fired Congreve rockets against the United States. William Congreve's incendiary rocket used black powder, an iron case, and a 16-foot guide stick. Congreve had used a 16-foot guidestick to help stabilize his rocket. William Hale, another British inventor, invented the stickless rocket in 1846. The U.S. army used the Hale rocket more than 100 years ago in the war with Mexico. Rockets were also used to a limited extent in the Civil War.

During the 19th century, rocket enthusiasts and inventors began to appear in almost every country. Some people thought these early rocket pioneers were geniuses, and others thought they were crazy. Claude Ruggieri, an Italian living in Paris, apparently rocketed small animals into space as early as 1806. The payloads were recovered by parachute. As far back as 1821, sailors hunted whales using rocket-propelled harpoons. These rocket harpoons were launched form a shoulder-held tube equipped with a circular blast shield.

Reaching for the Stars

By the end of the 19th century, soldiers, sailors, practical and not so practical inventors had developed a stake in rocketry. Skillful theorists, like Konstantian Tsiolkovsky in Russia, were examining the fundamental scientific theories behind rocketry. They were beginning to consider the possibility of space travel. Four persons were particularly significant in the transition from the small rockets of the 19th century to the colossi of the space age: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in Russia, Robert Goddard in the United States, and Hermann Oberth and Wernher von Braun in Germany.

Rocket Staging and Technology

Early rockets had a single engine, on which it rose until it ran out of fuel. A better way to achieve great speed, however, is to place a small rocket on top of a big one and fire it after the first has burned out. The US army, which after the war used captured V-2s for experimental flights into the high atmosphere, replaced the payload with another rocket, in this case a "WAC Corporal," which was launched from the top of the orbit. Now the burned-out V-2, weighing 3 tons, could be dropped, and using the smaller rocket, the payload reached a much higher altitude. Today of course almost every space rocket uses several stages, dropping each empty burned-out stage and continuing with a smaller and lighter booster. Explorer 1, the first artificial satellite of the US which was launched in January 1958, used a 4-stage rocket. Even the space shuttle uses two large solid-fuel boosters which are dropped after they burn out.

Apollo 11

How many movies, songs, anecdotes—even clichés—have sprung from humanity's first landing on the moon? This milestone event, which took place on July 20, 1969, seemed to encapsulate both the frenzy and change of the Sixties.

Powerful rockets launch the Apollo spacecraft into orbit.

It was on this day that astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin ("Buzz") Aldrin, Jr. bounced among lunar craters and Armstrong uttered the oft-quoted line, "One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." But did you know that the total lunar rock samples from the Apollo missions weighed nearly 900 lbs.? Or that the Apollo spacecraft itself weighed 44 tons and stood nearly 60 ft. high?

The famous Apollo 11 landing was only one mission in several decades of space exploration. During this tremendous period, the USSR and the United States led the way in the exploration of the great unknown of space.

Barely Crawling

The "space race," as it was called, between the USSR and the United States, embodied the Cold War. One country launched the first rocket; the other the first artificial satellite. The USSR claimed the first walk in space, while the U.S. claimed the first walk on the moon.

In 1957, the first artificial satellite, Sputnik I, was launched by the USSR - thus initiating the "space race." Soon after, the United States launched Explorer I, the first American satellite.

Altogether, nearly 50 unmanned probes from both countries explored the lunar-earth system. The competition between the countries soon expanded to other planets, including neighboring planets, Venus and Mars. On April 12, 1961, the USSR took a bold lead in the race when the cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, in Vostok 1, became the first person to orbit the earth.

But the U.S., lagging behind the USSR, was soon to follow.

The first men on the moon seemed to capture the flavor of 1969.

All Eyes on Apollo

Television sets around the world were tuned into the historic lunar landing of Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969. For those who witnessed the event, the team of three Apollo 11 astronauts—Neil Armstrong, "Buzz" Aldrin, and Michael Collins (who orbited the craft around the moon)—seemed to embody the ideals and hopes of all human beings.

From this trip and subsequent Apollo missions, much was learned about the physical constitution and early history of the earth's only natural satellite, including information about magnetic fields, heat flow, volcanism, and seismic activity. The total lunar rock sample returned to earth weighed nearly 900 lbs. (400 kg).

Earlier advances in rocket technology allowed for the initial lift-off of the Apollo spacecraft. The three-stage Saturn V rocket, developed 7.5 million lbs. (3.4 million kg) of thrust at liftoff, giving the Apollo spacecraft a powerful boost. At launch, the total assembly stood 363 ft (110 m) high and weighed more than 3,000 tons.

Competing Space Programs

Following the success of the Apollo 11 missions, where were the space programs to go? Manned space stations became the next goal for the competing space programs. Skylab, an earth-orbiting space station that served as workshop and living quarters for three astronauts, was launched by the U.S. in May 1972.v

TecSAR Reconnaissance Satellite

Key Data:

Project Type

Reconnaissance Satellite

Country

Israel

Launch Date

21 January 2008

Key Players:

Sponsor

Israel Ministry of Defence Research & Development Directorate

Contractors

MBT Space Division of Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), Elta Systems Ltd (SAR Payload development)

Weights:

Payload Weight

295kg

Lift-Off Weight

230t

Performance:

Lifespan

Over five years

Solar Panels Output

750W at end-of-life (EOL)

Altitude

Low earth orbit (400km-800km)

Attitude Control

Three-axis stabilised satellite

The technological synthetic aperture satellite (TecSAR) is Israel's low-earth orbit (LEO) reconnaissance satellite. It is the first advanced space satellite developed in Israel and ranks among the most advanced space systems in the world. The main purpose of building the satellite is to be able to track activity of enemy nations.

The satellite, also known as TechSARr or Polaris, was built by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI). Israel Ministry of Defence Research & Development Directorate (DRDD) has funded the satellite's development.

Under a commercial contract, Israel launched the satellite from India's Polar satellite launch vehicle (PSLV) at Sriharikota on 21 January 2008. The satellite's launch was postponed several times previously due to technical problems and bad weather conditions.

"The technological synthetic aperture satellite (TecSAR) is Israel's low-earth orbit (LEO) reconnaissance satellite."

The US Government ordered Northrop Grumman Corporation to build a similar satellite based on the TecSAR technology. Named Trinidad, the satellite will be built by Northrop Grumman in collaboration with IAI. An exclusive agreement was signed by Northrop Grumman with IAI in this regard to sell TecSAR to the US.

Space Technology

Space technology is technology that is related to entering space, maintaining and using systems during spaceflight and returning people and things from space.

"Every day" technologies such as weather forecasting, remote sensing, GPS systems, satellite television, and some long distance communications systems critically rely on space infrastructure. Of sciences astronomy and Earth sciences (via remote sensing) most notably benefit from space technology.